Rare Earth Elements UPSC Notes for GS, Geography, and International Relations

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are increasingly recognized as critical resources powering the world’s modern technological, defense, and energy infrastructure. Despite their name, these elements are not especially rare in terms of abundance but are notoriously difficult to extract and refine economically. With the rise of electric vehicles, green technologies, and advanced electronics, REEs have become a strategic geopolitical resource.

This article serves as a comprehensive UPSC Notes on Rare Earth Elements, covering their classification, usage, global reserves, and India’s role in the REE ecosystem.

✅ Understanding Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

Rare Earth Elements refer to a group of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table. These include:

15 Lanthanides (from Lanthanum to Lutetium)

Scandium and Yttrium, which share similar properties and are often grouped with lanthanides

These elements are found in the Earth’s crust in moderate abundance but are geologically dispersed, making extraction and purification complex and costly.

✅ Applications of Rare Earth Elements

REEs are indispensable across high-tech industries due to their magnetic, phosphorescent, and catalytic properties. Key sectors where REEs are used include:

Semiconductors

LEDs and laser technologies

Smartphones, computers, and electronic gadgets

Glass and optical fiber production

Wind turbines and EV motors (green energy)

Missile guidance systems, jet engines, and defense communication networks

✅ Types of Rare Earth Elements: LREE vs HREE

Rare Earth Elements are classified into two categories:

1️⃣ Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE):

These are more abundant and include:

Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium

Minerals: Monazite, Bastnaesite, Allanite, Cerite, Parisite

India’s REEs are primarily in this category, especially found in Monazite Sands, which are rich in Neodymium and Praseodymium.

2️⃣ Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREE):

Scarcer but more valuable, includes:

Dysprosium, Terbium, Gadolinium, Samarskite, Euxenite, Fergusonite, Yttrotantalite, Yttrotungstate, Thalenite, Yttriaite

India has limited extractable quantities of HREEs due to geological limitations.

✅ Global Landscape of Rare Earth Elements

🌏 China’s Dominance:

Controls 70% of global REE production, with 90% global processing control.

Owns 36% of world’s known reserves, about 44 million metric tons (mmt).

This has raised alarms globally over supply chain dependence on China, especially for critical technologies.
In recent events of 2025, amid the USA’s bilateral trade sanctions on China and Russia-Ukraine war, the Chinese authorities have reportedly imposed sanctions on export of REEs, which also impacted the supply chain of REE in India.

🌍 Other Major Reserves by countries:

Brazil: 21 million metric tons

Russia: 3.8 million metric tons

Australia: 5.7 million metric tons

Vietnam: 3.5 million metric tons

United States: 1.8 million tons

🌍 Major production by countries:

China: 270,000 metric tons

Myanmar: 31,000 metric tons

USA: 45,000 metric tons

Australia: 13,000 metric tons

Russia: 2,500 metric tons

Thailand: 13,000 metric tons

✅ Rare Earth Elements in India: UPSC Focus

India is 5th in the world in terms of REE reserves, holding approximately 6% of the global deposit.

📊 India’s REE Statistics:

Total Reserve: ~13.07 million metric tons (PIB report)

REE Contribution to World Production: Only 1% (2,900 metric tons approx.)

Key Source: Monazite Sand, found along coastal belts

REE Distribution:

Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat

Smaller deposits in West Bengal and Jharkhand

⚠ Extraction Challenges:

Monazite Sands also contain Thorium and Uranium, which are radioactive

India lacks advanced extraction technology and industrial-scale facilities

Though India has mining to oxide refinement infrastructure, elemental separation is limited

✅ Rare Earth Minerals Found in India

Monazite
Zircon
Ilmenite
Beryl
Apatite
Sillimanite
Columbite and Tantalite

India was a major REE exporter until 1948, primarily from the placer sands of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, before alternative sources were found in South Africa.

✅ India’s Import Dependence for REEs

India imports 60% of its REEs from China

Small quantities are imported from Latin America

This import dependence creates a strategic vulnerability

✅Government’s initiatives and policy framework on REE.

Despite having a significant reserve of REE, the net processing of REE is still a challenging scenario in India, due to difficulty in extraction process. However, efforts have been taken to create expertise in the domain.

In 1950, Indian Rare Earths (India) Ltd. (IREL), a PSU, was setup to specialise in mining and refining rare earth metals. It has installed capacity to process about 10,000 MT of rare earth bearing minerals, such as:

Rare Earths Division (RED) Aluva, at the banks of Periyar River in Kerela, for extraction of Monazite sand;
Odisha Sand Complex (OSCOM) and OSCOM – Rare Earth Extraction Plant (REEP), in Odisha;
Rare Earth Permanent Magnet Plant (REPM), Vishakapatnam;
IRERC, Kollam, etc.

In 2019, Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL) was created under a Ministry of Mines, as a Joint Venture Company formed with the participation of National Aluminium Company Ltd.(NALCO), Hindustan Copper Ltd.(HCL) and Mineral Exploration Company Ltd. (MECL) in the ratio of 40:30:30.
The objective is to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to Indian domestic market.

Further, Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 was amended in 2023 for broader prospect in critical minerals extraction, processing and export.

In 2025, the union cabinet approved National Critical Mineral Mission, with an outlay of INR34,300 crore over seven years.
As part of the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative, a strategic intiative to secure critical mineral supply chain by increasing domestic critical minerals productions and foreign supply sources, for both PSUs and private sectors. It also includes provisions for setting up of mineral processing parks and supporting the recycling of critical minerals. It will also promote research in critical mineral technologies and proposes setting up Centre of Excellence on Critical Minerals.

✅ Kazakhstan: India’s Strategic Partner in REE

Kazakhstan is emerging as a key ally and alternative source of Rare Earth Elements. It possesses 15 out of the 17 REEs.

🏭 Kazakhstan’s REE Industry:

Advanced production of Beryllium and Scandium

One of four global producers of Tantalum and Niobium

Metallurgical capability to extract Bismuth, Antimony, Selenium, Tellurium, Gallium, and Indium

🇮🇳🤝🇰🇿 India-Kazakhstan Cooperation:

NSA Ajit Doval proposed an India-Central Asia Rare Earth Forum at the 2nd India-Central Asia Summit in Astana

Aimed at boosting public-private investment in REEs

Aligned with India’s “Connect Central Asia” Policy

Kazakhstan is included in the North-South Transport Corridor (NSTC)

⚠ Geopolitical Relevance:

The Russia-Ukraine conflict has restricted Western access to REEs from Russia

Kazakhstan becomes a viable supply hub for India, US, Japan, Germany, South Korea, and the EU

✅ Challenges for India in Rare Earth Sector

Lack of commercial-scale HREE extraction (Dysprosium, Terbium not in extractable quantities)
Environmental concerns due to Thorium/Uranium presence in Monazite
High dependency on Chinese imports

✅ Way Forward for India

To reduce dependency and boost self-reliance in REEs, India must:

🧪 Invest in R&D for advanced separation and refining technologies

🏗 Build industrial-scale facilities for extraction and value addition

🌍 Collaborate with Kazakhstan and other partners for technology and resources

🏢 Encourage private sector participation in mining and downstream applications

🔐 Create strategic REE reserves, similar to oil and gas

📚 Conclusion: Rare Earth Elements UPSC Notes Summary

Rare Earth Elements are no longer just an industrial resource; they are a geo-strategic asset shaping global power dynamics. India’s position as a potential leader in REEs requires strategic policy action, technology development, and international collaboration—especially with nations like Kazakhstan.

For UPSC aspirants, understanding the science, application, distribution, and geopolitics of REEs is crucial for Prelims, Mains (GS Paper 1 & 3), and International Relations.

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Rare Earth Elements UPSC Notes